History of Science:Aligned Entries

McREL Standards with Aligned Historical Entries

McREL Physical Sciences Standard 8
McREL Physical Sciences Standard 9
McREL Physical Sciences Standard 10

Physical Sciences Standard 8: Understands the structure and properties of matter (Level IV, Grades 9–12)	Links to Historical Entries
Standard 8:1—Knows the structure of an atom (e.g., negative electrons occupy most of the space in the atom; neutrons and positive protons make up the nucleus of the atom; protons and neutrons are almost two thousand times heavier than an electron; the electric force between the nucleus and electrons holds the atom together).	J.J. Thomson Originator of the “plum pudding” atomic model. Ernest Rutherford Discovered the atom’s solid nucleus and orbiting electrons.
Standard 8:2—Understands how elements are arranged in the periodic table, and how this arrangement shows repeating patterns among elements with similar properties (e.g., numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons; relation between atomic number and atomic mass).	Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev Created the foundation for today’s periodic table. Henry G. W. Moseley Refined the periodic table through his discovery of atomic numbers.
Standard 8:3—Knows how the electron configuration of atoms governs the chemical properties of an element as atoms interact with one another by transferring or sharing the outermost electrons.	Linus Pauling Pioneer in the understanding of covalent bonds. Niels Bohr Originator of the “Bohr atomic model,” which includes electron orbitals.
Standard 8:4—Knows that atoms may be bonded together into molecules or crystalline solids, and compounds are formed from chemical bonds between two or more different kinds of atoms.	John Dalton Discovered laws of atomic combination. Jons Jacob Berzelius Pioneered the chemical analysis of compounds. Linus Pauling Wrote extensively on the nature of the chemical bond.
Standard 8:6—Knows that the number of electrons in an atom determines whether the atom is electrically neutral or an ion (i.e., electrically neutral atoms contain equal numbers of protons and electrons; a positively charged atom has lost one or more electrons; a negatively charged atom has gained one or more electrons).	Robert A. Millikan Measured the charge of the electron. Svante Arrhenius Originator of the “electrolytic dissociation theory.” Michael Faraday Coined the term “ion.” J.J. Thomson Discovered the electron.
Standard 8:7—Knows that most elements have two or more isotopes (i.e., atoms that differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus). Although the number of neutrons has little effect on how the atom interacts with other atoms, it does affect the mass and stability of the nucleus.	J.J. Thomson First to demonstrate the existence of isotopes in nature.
Standard 8:8—Knows how radioactive isotopes can be used to estimate the age of materials that contain them, because radioactive isotopes undergo spontaneous nuclear reactions and emit particles and/or wave-like radiation; the decay of any one nucleus cannot be predicted, but a large group of identical nuclei decay at a predictable rate, which can be used to estimate the material’s age.	Marie Curie Coined the term “radioactivity”; pioneer in the study of radioactive elements.
Standard 8:10—Understands that chemical reactions either release or consume energy (i.e., some changes of atomic or molecular configuration require an input of energy; others release energy).	Niels Bohr Originator of the “Bohr atomic model,” in which electrons move from orbitals with the input or release of energy.
Standard 8:11—Knows that chemical reactions can take place at vastly different rates (e.g., from the few femtoseconds required for an atom to move a fraction of a chemical-bond distance to geologic time scales of billions of years) and reaction rates depend on a variety of factors that influence the frequency of collision of reactant molecules (e.g., shape and surface area of the reacting species, temperature, pressure, the presence or absence of a catalyst).	Svante Arrhenius Creator of the “Arrhenius equation” for rates of reaction.
Standard 8:14—Knows the variety of structures that may be formed from the bonding of carbon atoms (e.g., synthetic polymers, oils, the large molecules essential to life) and their roles in various chemical reactions, including those required for life processes.	Jons Jacob Berzelius Pioneer in the field of organic chemistry. August Kekulé von Stradonitz Discovered the tetravalent state of carbon and the ring structure of benzene
Standard 8:15—Knows that many important reactions involve the transfer of either electrons (oxidation/reduction reactions) or hydrogen ions (acid/base reactions) between reacting ions, molecules, or atoms.	Svante Arrhenius Originator of a theory of acid/base chemistry.
Standard 8:16—Understands radical reactions and their role in natural and human processes (e.g., ozone and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, burning and processing of fossil fuels, formation of polymers, explosions).	Svante Arrhenius One of the first climate modelers and recognizers of the “greenhouse effect.”

Physical Sciences Standard 9: Understands the sources and properties of energy (Level IV, Grades 9–12)	Links to Historical Entries
Standard 9:4—Knows how the energy associated with individual atoms and molecules can be used to identify the substances they make up; each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular discrete amounts and, thus, can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to these amounts.	Robert Wilhelm Bunsen Co-inventor and user of the first spectrascope. Niels Bohr Originator of “the Bohr atomic model” and early quantum theorizer.
Standard 9:5—Knows that nuclear reactions convert a fraction of the mass of interacting particles into energy (e.g., fission involves the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller pieces; fusion is the joining of two nuclei at extremely high temperature and pressure) and release much greater amounts of energy than atomic interactions.	Ernest Rutherford Conducted the first nuclear reaction, when he “split” the atom. Niels Bohr Researched the atomic bomb.
Standard 9:7—Knows the range of the electromagnetic spectrum (e.g., radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, gamma rays); electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated, and the energy of electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength.	Marie Curie Investigated both “uranium rays” and the practical side of X-rays.

Physical Sciences Standard 9: Understands the sources and properties of energy (Level IV, Grades 9–12)

Links to Historical Entries

Standard 9:4—Knows how the energy associated with individual atoms and molecules can be used to identify the substances they make up; each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular discrete amounts and, thus, can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to these amounts.

Robert Wilhelm Bunsen

Co-inventor and user of the first spectrascope.

Niels Bohr

Originator of “the Bohr atomic model” and early quantum theorizer.

Standard 9:5—Knows that nuclear reactions convert a fraction of the mass of interacting particles into energy (e.g., fission involves the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller pieces; fusion is the joining of two nuclei at extremely high temperature and pressure) and release much greater amounts of energy than atomic interactions.

Ernest Rutherford

Conducted the first nuclear reaction, when he “split” the atom.

Niels Bohr

Researched the atomic bomb.

Standard 9:7—Knows the range of the electromagnetic spectrum (e.g., radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, gamma rays); electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated, and the energy of electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength.

Marie Curie

Investigated both “uranium rays” and the practical side of X-rays.

Physical Sciences Standard 10: Understands forces and motion (Level IV, Grades 9–12)	Links to Historical Entries
Standard 10:1—Knows that magnetic forces are very closely related to electric forces and can be thought of as different aspects of a single electromagnetic force (moving electric charges produce magnetic forces and moving magnets produce electric forces); the interplay of these forces is the basis for electric motors, generators, radio, television, and many other modern technologies.	Sir Humphry Davy Pioneer in the field of electrochemistry. Michael Faraday Created the first electric motor and generator.
Standard 10:5—Knows that electromagnetic forces exist within and between atoms (e.g., electric forces between oppositely charged electrons and protons hold atoms and molecules together and are involved in all chemical reactions; electric forces hold solid and liquid materials together and act between objects when they are in contact).	Sir Humphry Davy Recognized that chemical bonds are electric. Michael Faraday Discovered several laws of electrochemistry.

Physical Sciences Standard 10: Understands forces and motion (Level IV, Grades 9–12)

Links to Historical Entries

Standard 10:1—Knows that magnetic forces are very closely related to electric forces and can be thought of as different aspects of a single electromagnetic force (moving electric charges produce magnetic forces and moving magnets produce electric forces); the interplay of these forces is the basis for electric motors, generators, radio, television, and many other modern technologies.

Sir Humphry Davy

Pioneer in the field of electrochemistry.

Michael Faraday

Created the first electric motor and generator.

Standard 10:5—Knows that electromagnetic forces exist within and between atoms (e.g., electric forces between oppositely charged electrons and protons hold atoms and molecules together and are involved in all chemical reactions; electric forces hold solid and liquid materials together and act between objects when they are in contact).

Sir Humphry Davy

Recognized that chemical bonds are electric.

Michael Faraday

Discovered several laws of electrochemistry.

Using the History of Science in the Chemistry Classroom

McREL Standards with Aligned Historical Entries